Earth and Environmental Science (Version 8.4)

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Unit 4

Understand how Earth and Environmental Science works

Rationale/Aims

Earth and Environmental Science is a multifaceted field of inquiry that focuses on interactions between the solid Earth, its water, its air and its living organisms, and on dynamic, interdependent relationships that have developed between these four components.

Structure of Earth and Environmental Science

In Earth and Environmental Science, students develop their understanding of the ways in which interactions between Earth systems influence Earth processes, environments and resources.

Links to Foundation to Year 10

The Earth and Environmental Science curriculum continues to develop student understanding and skills from across the three strands of the F-10 Australian Curriculum: Science.

Representation of Cross-curriculum priorities

While the significance of the cross-curriculum priorities for Earth and Environmental Science varies, there are opportunities for teachers to select contexts that incorporate the key concepts from each priority.

Achievement standards

Unit 1: Introduction to Earth systems

Unit 1: Introduction to Earth systems Description

The Earth system involves four interacting systems: the geosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere. A change in any one ‘sphere’ can impact others at a range of temporal and spatial scales. In this unit, students build on their existing knowledge of Earth by exploring the development of understanding of Earth's formation and its internal and surface structure. Students study the processes that formed the oceans and atmosphere. They review the origin and significance of water at Earth’s surface, how water moves through the hydrological cycle, and the environments influenced by water, in particular the oceans, the cryosphere and groundwater. Students will examine the formation of soils at Earth’s surface (the pedosphere) as a process that involves the interaction of all Earth systems.

Students critically examine the scientific evidence for the origin of life, linking this with their understanding of the evolution of Earth’s hydrosphere and atmosphere. They review evidence from the fossil record that demonstrates the interrelationships between major changes in Earth’s systems and the evolution and extinction of organisms. They investigate how the distribution and viability of life on Earth influences, and is influenced by, Earth systems.

Through the investigation of appropriate contexts, students explore how international collaboration, evidence from multiple disciplines and individuals and the development of ICT and other technologies have contributed to developing understanding of Earth systems. They investigate how scientific knowledge is used to offer valid explanations and reliable predictions, and the ways in which it interacts with social, economic and cultural factors.

Students use science inquiry skills that mirror the types of inquiry conducted to establish our contemporary understanding of Earth systems: they engage in a range of investigations that help them develop the field and research skills used by geoscientists, soil scientists, atmospheric scientists, hydrologists, ecologists and environmental chemists to interpret geological, historical and real-time scientific information.

Unit 1: Introduction to Earth systems Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, students:

understand the key features of Earth systems, how they are interrelated, and their collective 4.5 billion year history
understand scientific models and evidence for the structure and development of the solid Earth, the hydrosphere, the atmosphere and the biosphere
understand how theories and models have developed based on evidence from multiple disciplines; and the uses and limitations of Earth and environmental science knowledge in a range of contexts
use science inquiry skills to collect, analyse and communicate primary and secondary data on Earth and environmental phenomena; and use these as analogues to deduce and analyse events that occurred in the past
evaluate, with reference to empirical evidence, claims about the structure, interactions and evolution of Earth systems
communicate Earth and environmental understanding using qualitative and quantitative representations in appropriate modes and genres.

Unit 1: Introduction to Earth systems Content Descriptions

Science Inquiry Skills (Earth and Environmental Science Unit 1)

Identify, research and construct questions for investigation; propose hypotheses; and predict possible outcomes (ACSES001)

Design investigations including the procedure/s to be followed, the information required and the type and amount of primary and/or secondary data to be collected; conduct risk assessments; and consider research ethics (ACSES002)

Conduct investigations, including using map and field location techniques and rock and soil sampling and identification procedures, safely, competently and methodically for the collection of valid and reliable data (ACSES003)

Represent data in meaningful and useful ways; organise and analyse data to identify trends, patterns and relationships; qualitatively describe sources of measurement error, and uncertainty and limitations in data; and select, synthesise and use evidence to make and justify conclusions (ACSES004)

Interpret a range of scientific and media texts and evaluate processes, claims and conclusions by considering the quality of available evidence; use reasoning to construct scientific arguments (ACSES005)

Select, construct and use appropriate representations, including maps and cross sections to describe and analyse spatial relationships, and stratigraphy and isotopic half-life data to infer the age of rocks and fossils, to communicate conceptual understanding, solve problems and make predictions (ACSES006)

Communicate to specific audiences and for specific purposes using appropriate language, genres and modes, including compilations of field data and research reports (ACSES007)

Science as a Human Endeavour (Units 1 & 2)

Science is a global enterprise that relies on clear communication, international conventions, peer review and reproducibility (ACSES008)

Development of complex models and/or theories often requires a wide range of evidence from multiple individuals and across disciplines (ACSES009)

Advances in science understanding in one field can influence other areas of science, technology and engineering (ACSES010)

The use of scientific knowledge is influenced by social, economic, cultural and ethical considerations (ACSES011)

The use of scientific knowledge may have beneficial and/or harmful and/or unintended consequences (ACSES012)

Scientific knowledge can enable scientists to offer valid explanations and make reliable predictions (ACSES013)

Scientific knowledge can be used to develop and evaluate projected economic, social and environmental impacts and to design action for sustainability (ACSES014)

Science Understanding

Development of the geosphere

Examples in context

Support materials only that illustrate some possible contexts for exploring Science as a Human Endeavour concepts in relation to Science Understanding content.

Changing views on the age of Earth

In the seventeenth century, Bishop James Ussher analysed historical accounts and the chronology of the Bible to deduce that the creation of Earth commenced at nightfall preceding the 23 October, 4004 BC (BCE). In the eighteenth century, the Comte du Buffon was one of the first to propose an age based on empirical evidence, suggesting that Earth was 75 000 years old, based on the rate it was cooling. In the following centuries, many scientists from many different disciplines proposed ages of Earth based on their experiments and calculations (ACSES009). The current agreed age of Earth is around 4.54 billion years. This age has been calculated from radiometric dating of meteorites and is consistent with various younger ages obtained from Earth and Moon rocks (ACSES010).

Modern processes as analogues for ancient processes

The principle of uniformitarianism, first formulated by James Hutton and later developed by Charles Lyell, suggests that change is constant and uniform. Therefore knowledge of a modern process can be used to explain similar past events or predict similar future events. For example, as part of studying the enhanced greenhouse effect, scientists have searched for possible previous geological analogues which would help them to make predictions about how the climate might change in the future (ACSES013). To achieve this, the geologic and paleoclimate scientific communities have been studying the collated data on glaciations, inter-glacial periods and atmospheric parameters to find a period in Earth’s history that can be used as an analogue for a future with an enhanced greenhouse effect (ACSES008).

Understanding the interior of Earth

As technology has not yet developed to enable direct study of Earth below a depth of about 10 km, science relies on secondary sources of data to develop models of the interior based on inference. This includes studying the propagation of seismic waves, using gravity maps developed via satellite technology, studying the composition of material ejected from volcanic eruptions and meteorites, analysing the density of rocks, and studying Earth’s magnetic field (ACSES009). The development of supercomputing has enabled the design of complex models of Earth’s interior, demonstrating, for example, the way in which changes in the dynamics of the inner and outer core cause changes in Earth’s magnetic field (ACSES010).

Observation of present day processes can be used to infer past events and processes by applying the Principle of Uniformitarianism (ACSES015)

A relative geological time scale can be constructed using stratigraphic principles including superposition, cross cutting relationships, inclusions and correlation (ACSES016)

Precise dates can be assigned to points on the relative geological time scale using data derived from the decay of radioisotopes in rocks and minerals; this establishes an absolute time scale and places the age of the Earth at 4.5 billion years (ACSES017)

Earth has internally differentiated into a layered structure: a solid metallic inner core, a liquid metallic outer core and a silicate mantle and crust; the study of seismic waves and meteorites provides evidence for this structure (ACSES018)

Rocks are composed of characteristic assemblages of mineral crystals or grains that are formed through igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic processes, as part of the rock cycle (ACSES019)

Soil formation requires interaction between atmospheric, geologic, hydrologic and biotic processes; soil is composed of rock and mineral particles, organic material, water, gases and living organisms (ACSES020)

Development of the atmosphere and hydrosphere

Examples in context

Support materials only that illustrate some possible contexts for exploring Science as a Human Endeavour concepts in relation to Science Understanding content.

Monitoring Earth’s atmosphere

Study of contemporary atmospheric changes includes analysis of materials and chemicals present in the atmosphere, as well as properties such as air quality, surface pressure, surface temperature and humidity. Since the 1980s, the Global Atmosphere Watch, established by the World Meteorological Organisation, a United Nations agency, has been monitoring trends in Earth’s atmosphere. The program seeks to identify and understand changes in the atmosphere in order to be able to predict future change and provide advice about ways to mitigate the effect of human-induced atmospheric change (ACSES014). A number of environmental conventions have been ratified as a consequence of information derived from the global monitoring of the atmosphere (ACSES012).

Water and the search for life on other planets

The search for evidence of life on other planets is often initially focused on identification of extraterrestrial liquid water. Based on models of Earth, scientists theorise that planets with surface water will occur within a ‘Goldilocks zone’ of distance from their sun, where surface temperatures are not too hot and not too cold (ACSES009). However new theories suggest that if a planet outside the ‘Goldilocks zone’ is large enough, and produces enough internal heat, it could still contain deep reservoirs of liquid water capable of supporting life. Development of satellite and probe technologies has enabled identification of natural satellites and dwarf planets in our solar system that have evidence of liquids below the surface, and both Venus and Mars are thought to have had large areas of surface water in their past. The Hubble space telescope has enabled identification of the atmosphere of planets outside our solar system (ACSES010).

The atmosphere was derived from volcanic outgassing during cooling and differentiation of Earth and its composition has been significantly modified by the actions of photosynthesising organisms (ACSES021)

The modern atmosphere has a layered structure characterised by changes in temperature: the troposphere, mesosphere, stratosphere and thermosphere (ACSES022)

Water is present on the surface of Earth as a result of volcanic outgassing and impact by icy bodies from space; water occurs in three phases (solid, liquid, gas) on Earth’s surface (ACSES023)

Water’s unique properties, including its boiling point, density in solid and liquid phase, surface tension and its ability to act a solvent, and its abundance at the surface of Earth make it an important component of Earth system processes (for example, precipitation, ice sheet formation, evapotranspiration, solution of salts) (ACSES024)

Development of the biosphere

Examples in context

Support materials only that illustrate some possible contexts for exploring Science as a Human Endeavour concepts in relation to Science Understanding content.

Evidence for the origin of life

Theories of the origin of living organisms from inanimate materials (abiogenesis) in a ‘primordial soup’ were first published in the 1920s, but received little attention. However in the 1950s, experimentation by Urey and Miller indicated that by introducing a spark to an aqueous mixture of compounds likely to have been present on early Earth, organic molecules could form. This is an example of how scientists can theorise about the early conditions on Earth that may have led to the origin of life and then use an experimental design as a ‘proof of concept’ (ACSES013). A wide range of other evidence supports the theory of abiogenesis, however many people also reject this theory in favour of a religious view of creation (ACSES011).

Evidence for a ‘sixth extinction’

Analysis of past mass extinction events, based on evidence in sedimentary rocks and the fossil record, identifies the cause of these events as physical change. Current data on global species loss indicates that a ‘sixth extinction’ of greater severity than previous events may be imminent. Research indicates that this extinction will be caused by biotic rather than physical events, including human transformation of the landscape, overharvesting of species, pollution and introduction of alien species. The fossil record provides evidence for significant ecosystem change and loss of species associated with human activity. Contemporary evidence of human population increase, increase in land clearing, pollution and alien species introduction is theorised to align with evidence of species loss around the globe (ACSES013). Actions to halt the loss of species require social, economic and cultural support and a commitment to global action for sustainability (ACSES014).

Evidence for changes to the Australian environment over time

The fossil record and sedimentary rock evidence, in addition to the oral histories and art sites of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples, suggest that Australia’s environments have changed in significant ways since it separated from Antarctica approximately 45 million years ago, including becoming much drier (ACSES009). Evidence indicates that the landscape changed from cool temperate rainforest to deserts, open grasslands and open forests over the last few million years, and that fire stick farming played a significant role in the last 50 000 years. Some aspects of Australia’s past are debated, including the relationship between the extinction of the megafauna and hunting by Aboriginal people. However there is a wide body of evidence that suggests climate change was more likely to have been the cause of megafauna extinction than overhunting (ACSES013).

Fossil evidence indicates that life first appeared on Earth approximately 4 billion years ago (ACSES025)

Laboratory experimentation has informed theories that life emerged under anoxic atmospheric conditions in an aqueous mixture of inorganic compounds, either in a shallow water setting as a result of lightning strike or in an ocean floor setting due to hydrothermal activity (ACSES026)

In any one location, the characteristics (for example, temperature, surface water, substrate, organisms, available light) and interactions of the atmosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere give rise to unique and dynamic communities (ACSES027)

The characteristics of past environments and communities (for example, presence of water, nature of the substrate, organism assemblages) can be inferred from the sequence and internal textures of sedimentary rocks and enclosed fossils (ACSES028)

The diversification and proliferation of living organisms over time (for example, increases in marine animals in the Cambrian), and the catastrophic collapse of ecosystems (for example, the mass extinction event at the end of the Cretaceous) can be inferred from the fossil record (ACSES029)

Unit 2: Earth processes – energy transfers and transformations

Unit 2: Earth processes – energy transfers and transformations Description

Earth system processes require energy. In this unit, students explore how the transfer and transformation of energy from the sun and Earth’s interior enable and control processes within and between the geosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere. Students examine how the transfer and transformation of heat and gravitational energy in Earth's interior drive movements of Earth’s tectonic plates. They analyse how the transfer of solar energy to Earth is influenced by the structure of the atmosphere; how air masses and ocean water move as a result of solar energy transfer and transformation to cause global weather patterns; and how changes in these atmospheric and oceanic processes can result in anomalous weather patterns.

Students use their knowledge of the photosynthetic process to understand the transformation of sunlight into other energy forms that are useful for living things. They study how energy transfer and transformation in ecosystems are modelled and they review how biogeochemical cycling of matter in environmental systems involves energy use and energy storage.

Through the investigation of appropriate contexts, students explore how international collaboration, evidence from multiple disciplines and individuals and the development of ICT and other technologies have contributed to developing understanding of the energy transfers and transformations within and between Earth systems. They investigate how scientific knowledge is used to offer valid explanations and reliable predictions, and the ways in which it interacts with social, economic and cultural factors, including the design of action for sustainability.

Students use inquiry skills to collect, analyse and interpret data relating to energy transfers and transformations and cycling of matter and make inferences about the factors causing changes to movements of energy and matter in Earth systems.

Unit 2: Earth processes – energy transfers and transformations Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, students:

understand how energy is transferred and transformed in Earth systems, the factors that influence these processes, and the dynamics of energy loss and gain
understand how energy transfers and transformations influence oceanic, atmospheric and biogeochemical cycling
understand how theories and models have developed based on evidence from multiple disciplines; and the uses and limitations of Earth and environmental science knowledge in a range of contexts
use science inquiry skills to collect, analyse and communicate primary and secondary data on energy transfers and transformations between and within Earth systems
evaluate, with reference to empirical evidence, claims about energy transfers and transformations between and within Earth systems
communicate Earth and environmental understanding using qualitative and quantitative representations in appropriate modes and genres.

Unit 2: Earth processes – energy transfers and transformations Content Descriptions

Science Inquiry Skills (Earth and Environmental Science Unit 2)

Identify, research and construct questions for investigation; propose hypotheses; and predict possible outcomes (ACSES030)

Conduct investigations, including using map and field location techniques and environmental sampling procedures, safely, competently and methodically for the collection of valid and reliable data (ACSES032)

Select, construct and use appropriate representations, including maps and other spatial representations, diagrams and flow charts, to communicate conceptual understanding, solve problems and make predictions (ACSES035)

Communicate to specific audiences and for specific purposes using appropriate language, genres and modes, including compilations of field data and research reports (ACSES036)

Science as a Human Endeavour (Units 1 & 2)

Science is a global enterprise that relies on clear communication, international conventions, peer review and reproducibility (ACSES037)

Development of complex models and/or theories often requires a wide range of evidence from multiple individuals and across disciplines (ACSES038)

Advances in science understanding in one field can influence other areas of science, technology and engineering (ACSES039)

The use of scientific knowledge is influenced by social, economic, cultural and ethical considerations (ACSES040)

The use of scientific knowledge may have beneficial and/or harmful and/or unintended consequences (ACSES041)

Scientific knowledge can enable scientists to offer valid explanations and make reliable predictions (ACSES042)

Scientific knowledge can be used to develop and evaluate projected economic, social and environmental impacts and to design action for sustainability (ACSES043)

Science Understanding

Energy for Earth processes

Examples in context

Support materials only that illustrate some possible contexts for exploring Science as a Human Endeavour concepts in relation to Science Understanding content.

Development of plate tectonic theory

Alfred Wegener, a meteorologist, first proposed a theory of continental drift in 1912 and followed this with publication of an expanded theory in 1915. His theory provoked much debate in scientific circles, because although there was some evidence of continental movement, there was no clear mechanism to drive plate movement. It took more than 50 years and the collection of a large body of evidence for broad acceptance of what we now refer to as plate tectonics theory (ACSES037). Patterns in the distribution of rock types and fossil fragments occurring across various continents were provided as early evidence for the theory, and scientists working with palaeomagnetism found further evidence that the continents had different configurations in the past by comparing the magnetic fields recorded by rocks of similar age across different continents. Marine geology conducted in the late 1950s and early 1960s also provided evidence for sea floor spreading along plate boundaries (ACSES038). By the late 1960s the explanatory and predictive power of the theory of plate tectonics became more broadly accepted, with numerous scientists presenting papers elaborating the concepts involved (ACSES037).

Measuring plate movement

Heat energy stored and generated in Earth’s interior creates convection currents on a massive, continental scale that result in the movement of very large sections of Earth’s rigid crust and uppermost mantle. Development of satellite measurement techniques, particularly global positioning system (GPS) technologies, enables accurate measurement of plate movement (ACSES039). Plate movement is tracked directly by means of GPS data; repeated measurements of carefully selected points on Earth’s surface are taken and plate movement is inferred through determination of how the distance between them changes. Measurement of plate movements enables scientists to predict the direction and rate of plate movement and to develop better understandings of processes such as mountain building and mantle convection (ACSES042).

Geothermal energy

Geothermal heat from Earth’s interior provides a low carbon emission energy source, and can be accessed via hot rock, hot sedimentary aquifer and direct heat technologies. Geothermal systems involve a heat source, permeable rock and a fluid to transport heat to the surface; of these the permeable rock and fluid reservoirs can be artificially created. Proponents of geothermal power generation point to its high baseload capacity, low carbon dioxide emissions, low environmental impacts and potential to provide increased energy security (ACSES043). In areas of Europe, heat from geothermal sources has been brought to the surface using both simple conductive and convective processes to heat homes and large greenhouses for horticulture (ACSES041). However in countries that are less geologically active, such as Australia, sourcing geothermal energy requires significant infrastructure and investment and it remains a challenge to make geothermal energy production economically viable.

Energy is neither created nor destroyed, but can be transformed from one form to another (for example, kinetic, gravitational, thermal, light) and transferred between objects (ACSES044)

Processes within and between Earth systems require energy that originates either from the sun or the interior of Earth (ACSES045)

Thermal and light energy from the Sun drives important Earth processes including evaporation and photosynthesis (ACSES046)

Transfers and transformations of heat and gravitational energy in Earth's interior drives the movement of tectonic plates through processes including mantle convection, plume formation and slab sinking (ACSES047)

Energy for atmospheric and hydrologic processes

Examples in context

Support materials only that illustrate some possible contexts for exploring Science as a Human Endeavour concepts in relation to Science Understanding content.

Predicting the weather

Formal weather prediction has been practised since the nineteenth century. Accurate weather forecasting is vital to the public and private sectors, for example to provide severe weather warnings and to inform decision making in aviation and marine industries, agriculture and forestry. There is a huge demand from commercial and industrial sectors to increase the accuracy and reliability of weather forecasting over longer periods of time (ACSES040). Weather predictions are based on interpretation of changes in factors such as air and water temperature, the direction and speed of air and water currents, humidity and atmospheric pressure. Contemporary weather predictions are informed by computer models that take into account a range of atmospheric factors, but still rely on human input to determine the best forecast model and to interpret the model data into weather forecasts that are understandable to the end user (ACSES042).

Climate change and the global ocean conveyor

The global ocean conveyor is important in regulating global climate. Advances in remote sensing with satellites have enabled scientists to develop models of the complex pathways involved and measure their characteristics (ACSES039).The global ocean conveyor is partly driven by thermohaline circulation, the movement of water due to density changes resulting from temperature or salinity. The places where these deepwater currents are created are believed to compose less than 1% of the ocean’s surface area. Analysis of geological evidence indicates that when these vulnerable areas are disrupted, the global ocean conveyor can be “shut down” and the world’s climate can be drastically altered in just a few years. Some scientists predict that melting of the Greenland ice sheet could influence the global ocean conveyor, causing changes in global climate (ACSES043).

The net transfer of solar energy to Earth’s surface is influenced by its passage through the atmosphere, including impeded transfer of ultraviolet radiation to Earth’s surface due to its interaction with atmospheric ozone, and by the physical characteristics of Earth’s surface, including albedo (ACSES048)

Most of the thermal radiation emitted from Earth’s surface passes back out into space but some is reflected or scattered by greenhouse gases back toward Earth; this additional surface warming produces a phenomenon known as the greenhouse effect (ACSES049)

The movement of atmospheric air masses due to heating and cooling, and Earth’s rotation and revolution, cause systematic atmospheric circulation; this is the dominant mechanism for the transfer of thermal energy around Earth’s surface (ACSES050)

The behaviour of the global oceans as a heat sink, and Earth’s rotation and revolution, cause systematic ocean currents; these are described by the global ocean conveyer model (ACSES051)

The interaction between Earth’s atmosphere and oceans changes over time and can result in anomalous global weather patterns, including El Nino and La Nina (ACSES052)

Energy for biogeochemical processes

Examples in context

Support materials only that illustrate some possible contexts for exploring Science as a Human Endeavour concepts in relation to Science Understanding content.

Biological soil crusts and nutrient cycling in Australian rangelands

Biological soil crusts are formed by living organisms such as cyanobacteria, lichen or algae and their byproducts, creating a crust of soil particles bound together by organic materials. Biological soil crusts are found globally in arid and semiarid environments, and are common in Australia. They play an important role in soil fertility and protect the soil surface from erosion and evaporation. The cyanobacteria in soil crusts are photosynthetic and research indicates that they are important for fixing and storing soil carbon; they also secrete compounds that increase the bio-availability of phosphorus and nitrogen (ACSES038). However crusts are easily disrupted by domestic livestock grazing, leading to nutrient leaching and a significant rundown in the productivity of the pasture, especially in Australian environments where hooved animals have been introduced relatively recently. Some ecologists believe that a switch to harvesting kangaroo rather than sheep or cattle would have a significant impact on rangeland productivity and ecosystem health, but kangaroo meat is not currently as highly valued by consumers (ACSES040).

Closed ecosystem models

Artificial ecosystems (closed to materials import and export) have been developed to aid research in ecosystem function and to assess their potential as life support systems in space stations or for space colonisation. One of the most significant experiments of this type was Biosphere 2, constructed in Arizona in the late 1980s. The Biosphere dome is a large terrarium in which water and nutrients are recycled, with solar radiation entering via the vast glass surfaces of the dome. The first ‘mission’ involved eight people being sealed inside the closed system for two years. The system was designed to enable biogeochemical cycling of matter and particularly provided insight into carbon and oxygen cycling in carbon dioxide rich environments (ACSES041). The $200 million experiment has been criticised for contamination of the system when an ill crew member was removed and reinstated, bringing in some new materials, but other members of the science community consider its contribution to closed system ecological studies to be invaluable (ACSES037).

Marine primary production

The majority of primary production in marine environments occurs via phytoplankton floating near the surface of the ocean. The zone in which sufficient sunlight is available for photosynthesis to occur is called the photic zone and almost 90% of marine organisms live in this zone. Water turbidity has a significant effect on the depth of the photic zone; pollution of marine ecosystems via erosion from mining, forestry, farming or coastal dredging can cause high turbidity that impedes photosynthesis (ACSES043). However recent studies have shown that phytoplankton populations appear to be rising in a number of locations across the globe as they absorb more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Some scientists predict an increase in the primary productivity of the oceans of between 0.7% and 8.1% as atmospheric carbon dioxide increases, but this predicted increase is likely to vary significantly with location, and may be offset by large predicted losses in productivity around the polar regions due to ice cap contraction (ACSES042).

Photosynthesis is the principal mechanism for the transformation of energy from the sun into energy forms that are useful for living things; net primary production is a description of the rate at which new biomass is generated, mainly through photosynthesis (ACSES053)

The availability of energy and matter are one of the main determinants of ecosystem carrying capacity; that is, the number of organisms that can be supported in an ecosystem (ACSES054)

Biogeochemical cycling of matter, including nitrogen and phosphorus, involves the transfer and transformation of energy between the biosphere, geosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere (ACSES055)

Energy is stored, transferred and transformed in the carbon cycle; biological elements, including living and dead organisms, store energy over relatively short timescales, and geological elements (for example, hydrocarbons, coal and kerogens) store energy for extended periods (ACSES056)

Unit 3: Living on Earth - extracting, using and managing Earth resources

Unit 3: Living on Earth - extracting, using and managing Earth resources Description

Earth resources are required to sustain life and provide infrastructure for living (for example, food, shelter, medicines, transport, and communication), driving ongoing demand for biotic, mineral and energy resources. In this unit, students explore renewable and non-renewable resources and analyse the effects that resource extraction, use and consumption and associated waste removal have on Earth systems and human communities.

Students examine the occurrence of non-renewable mineral and energy resources and review how an understanding of Earth and environmental science processes guides resource exploration and extraction. They investigate how the rate of extraction and other environmental factors impact on the quality and availability of renewable resources, including water, energy resources and biota, and the importance of monitoring and modelling to manage these resources at local, regional and global scales. Students learn about ecosystem services and how natural and human-mediated changes of the biosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere and geosphere, including the pedosphere, influence resource availability and sustainable management.

Through the investigation of appropriate contexts, students explore the ways in which models and theories related to resource extraction, use and management have developed over time and through interactions with social, economic, cultural and ethical considerations. They investigate the ways in which science contributes to contemporary debate regarding local, regional and international resource use, evaluation of risk and action for sustainability, and recognise the limitations of science in providing definitive answers in different contexts.

Students use science inquiry skills to collect, analyse and interpret data relating to the extraction, use, consumption and waste management of renewable and non-renewable resources. They critically analyse the range of factors that determine management of renewable and non-renewable resources.

Unit 3: Living on Earth - extracting, using and managing Earth resources Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, students:

understand the difference between renewable and non-renewable Earth resources and how their extraction, use, consumption and disposal impact Earth systems
understand how renewable resources can be sustainably extracted, used and consumed at local, regional and global scales
understand how models and theories have developed over time; and the ways in which Earth and environmental science knowledge interacts with social, economic, cultural and ethical considerations in a range of contexts
use science inquiry skills to collect, analyse and communicate primary and secondary data on resource extraction and related impacts on Earth systems
evaluate, with reference to empirical evidence, claims about resource extraction and related impacts on Earth systems and justify evaluations
communicate Earth and environmental understanding using qualitative and quantitative representations in appropriate modes and genres.

Unit 3: Living on Earth - extracting, using and managing Earth resources Content Descriptions

Science Inquiry Skills (Earth and Environmental Science Unit 3)

Identify, research and construct questions for investigation; propose hypotheses; and predict possible outcomes (ACSES057)

Conduct investigations, including using spatial analysis to complement map and field location techniques and environmental sampling procedures, safely, competently and methodically for the collection of valid and reliable data (ACSES059)

Represent data in meaningful and useful ways; organise and analyse data to identify trends, patterns and relationships; discuss the ways in which measurement error and instrumental accuracy and the nature of the procedure and sample size may influence uncertainty and limitations in data; and select, synthesise and use evidence to make and justify conclusions (ACSES060)

Interpret a range of scientific and media texts and evaluate processes, claims and conclusions by considering the quality of available evidence, including interpreting confidence intervals in secondary data; use reasoning to construct scientific arguments (ACSES061)

Select, construct and use appropriate representations, including maps and other spatial representations, to communicate conceptual understanding, solve problems and make predictions (ACSES062)

Communicate to specific audiences and for specific purposes using appropriate language, genres and modes, including compilations of field data and research reports (ACSES063)

Science as a Human Endeavour (Units 3 & 4)

ICT and other technologies have dramatically increased the size, accuracy and geographic and temporal scope of data sets with which scientists work (ACSES064)

Models and theories are contested and refined or replaced when new evidence challenges them, or when a new model or theory has greater explanatory power (ACSES065)

The acceptance of scientific knowledge can be influenced by the social, economic and cultural context in which it is considered (ACSES066)

People can use scientific knowledge to inform the monitoring, assessment and evaluation of risk (ACSES067)

Science can be limited in its ability to provide definitive answers to public debate; there may be insufficient reliable data available, or interpretation of the data may be open to question (ACSES068)

International collaboration is often required when investing in large-scale science projects or addressing issues for the Asia-Pacific region (ACSES069)

Scientific knowledge can be used to develop and evaluate projected economic, social and environmental impacts and to design action for sustainability (ACSES070)

Science Understanding

Use of non-renewable Earth resources

Examples in context

Support materials only that illustrate some possible contexts for exploring Science as a Human Endeavour concepts in relation to Science Understanding content.

Locating and assessing resources for extraction

The location and assessment of resources for extraction can be an expensive and time consuming process. However it is critical that it be done accurately if resources are to be extracted in a sustainable and profitable manner. Modern technologies have had a large impact on improving the efficiency and effectiveness of this process, including the use of aerial and satellite imagery to map resource location, use of software packages to model resource distribution, and validation of the model using technologies such as seismic surveys (ACSES064). A feasibility study is then conducted to determine whether the resource can be extracted effectively and profitably. This includes not only an estimate of the size and value of the resource, but also a detailed analysis of suitable extraction methods and any processing techniques needed to refine the commodity, the capital and operating costs of the operation, and its environmental impacts (ACSES070). Other key parameters such as availability of support facilities and infrastructure, site access and social impacts are also investigated and evaluated.

Coal seam gas extraction in Australia

Australia has relatively large coal seam gas reserves (CSG) and the CSG industry is rapidly expanding. Proponents of the CSG industry argue it will deliver economic benefits for regional towns and cities, and represents a cleaner energy source than coal. However there is also significant resistance to the rapid development of the industry, including competition issues with relation to agricultural and reserve land, and environmental impacts on landscapes and aquifers (ACSES066). A CSG plant, while causing much less physical damage to the land surface than conventional mining, fragments pasture or habitat with a large number of pipes, compressor stations and access roads. These are typically set up on a 200 to 750 metre grid pattern, depending on the nature of the coal seam. Environmental concerns include the emissions produced from extracting the gas and condensing it into a liquid form, and the extraction of water in order to access the CSG. Community concern over CSG industry development also reflects the limited information available on the long-term impacts of CSG industries (ACSES067).

Carbon pricing

One of the main concerns associated with resource extraction is greenhouse gas pollution in the form of carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and perfluorocarbon emissions. The Kyoto Protocol adopted by the United Nations in 1997 sets obligations for industrialised countries to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases (ACSES069). One approach to reduce the level of carbon dioxide emissions adopted by the European Union, some American states and Australia has been to introduce carbon pricing. Carbon pricing can provide funds for investment in cleaner energy, and aims to act as an incentive for businesses to reduce their pollution. There is debate about the effectiveness of carbon pricing in reducing greenhouse gas emissions, partly because there are a number of factors that contribute to a reduction in emissions, including a decrease in economic activity, and these make it difficult to attribute significance to a single factor (ACSES068).

Non-renewable mineral and energy resources are formed over geological time scales so are not readily replenished (ACSES071)

The location of non-renewable mineral and energy resources, including fossil fuels, iron ore and gold, is related to their geological setting (for example, sedimentary basins, igneous terrains) (ACSES072)

Mineral and energy resources are discovered using a variety of remote sensing techniques (for example, satellite images, aerial photographs and geophysical datasets) and direct sampling techniques (for example, drilling, core sampling, soil and rock sampling) to identify the spatial extent of the deposit and quality of the resource (ACSES073)

The type, volume and location of mineral and energy resources influences the methods of extraction (for example, underground, open pit, onshore and offshore drilling and completion) (ACSES074)

Extraction of mineral and energy resources influences interactions between the abiotic and biotic components of ecosystems, including hydrologic systems (ACSES075)

Use of renewable Earth resources

Examples in context

Support materials only that illustrate some possible contexts for exploring Science as a Human Endeavour concepts in relation to Science Understanding content.

Maximum sustainable yield models and fisheries

Overfishing has been a concern since the late nineteenth century, and government approaches to manage fish stocks have been in place since the early twentieth century. Maximum sustainable yield (MSY) has been one of the most influential concepts to inform fish stock management and has been applied since the 1950s. However, MSY models have been criticised as they ignore the size and age of the animal being harvested, its reproductive status and the effects of fishing on the ecosystem more broadly (ACSES065). For example, application of an MSY model to fishing for orange roughy in New Zealand almost resulted in depletion of natural stocks because this species has a slow maturation and low resilience to harvesting. However overfishing continues to be a problem that requires management policies; use of fishing quotas has been shown to be successful, but calculation of these quotas needs to take account of the population dynamics of the species, ecosystem dynamics and the effects of changes in the biotic and abiotic conditions of that ecosystem in order to enable sustainable harvesting of the resource (ACSES070).

Putting a dollar value on ecosystem services

A range of environmentalists and economists have proposed that an economic value be placed on ecosystem services in order to ensure that they are accounted for in business and policy decisions. Such a value could be determined from an analysis of the economic benefits that derive from ecosystems and biodiversity, and a comparison made between the costs of failing to protect these resources with the costs of conserving them (ACSES067). Payment and trading of services is emerging as one way to consider the value of ecosystem services; credits are acquired for activities such as sponsoring the protection of carbon sequestration sources or the restoration of ecosystem service providers. However reliable calculation of values is confounded by the complexity of ecosystem dynamics and the lack of data regarding how changes in one aspect of an ecosystem affects other aspects over time, creating challenges for the implementation of such environmental economics (ACSES068).

Food security and protecting agricultural biodiversity

Food security is increasingly viewed as one of the most significant global issues, and has implications for health, sustainable economic development, environmental protection and trade. Greater agricultural productivity is seen as essential to achieving food security, but this can often lead to a focus on farming high yield species, which may itself lead to a decrease in the genetic diversity of global food species. Decreased genetic diversity increases vulnerability of species to disease and changes in environmental conditions; a focus on high yield species can require additional inputs, such as fertiliser and water, in order to be successful in different environments (ACSES070). Global actions to maintain biodiversity of agricultural species include the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, which provides a framework for national, regional and international efforts to conserve genetic resources and share the benefits of such conservation equally (ACSES069).

Renewable resources are those that are typically replenished at time scales of years to decades and include harvestable resources (for example, water, biota and some energy resources) and services (for example, ecosystem services) (ACSES076)

Ecosystems provide a range of renewable resources, including provisioning services (for example, food, water, pharmaceuticals), regulating services (for example, carbon sequestration, climate control), supporting services (for example, soil formation, nutrient and water cycling, air and water purification) and cultural services (for example, aesthetics, knowledge systems) (ACSES077)

The abundance of a renewable resource and how readily it can be replenished influence the rate at which it can be sustainably used at local, regional and global scales (ACSES078)

The cost-effective use of renewable energy resources is constrained by the efficiency of available technologies to collect, store and transfer the energy (ACSES079)

The availability and quality of fresh water can be influenced by human activities (for example, urbanisation, over-extraction, pollution) and natural processes (for example, siltation, drought, algal blooms) at local and regional scales (ACSES080)

Any human activities that affect ecosystems (for example, species removal, habitat destruction, pest introduction, dryland salinity) can directly or indirectly reduce populations to beneath the threshold of population viability at local, regional and global scales and impact ecosystem services (ACSES081)

Overharvesting can directly reduce populations of biota to beneath the threshold of population viability; the concept of maximum sustainable yield aims to enable sustainable harvesting (ACSES082)

Producing, harvesting, transporting and processing of resources for consumption, and assimilating the associated wastes, involves the use of resources; the concept of an ‘ecological footprint’ is used to measure the magnitude of this demand (ACSES083)